Powering a Greener Singapore: How Green Bonds Are Driving Our MRT Expansion

In an increasingly climate-conscious world, nations are seeking innovative ways to fund sustainable development. Singapore, a global leader in urban planning and green initiatives, is no exception. Today, the Ministry of Finance (MOF) unveiled a significant update on the allocation of its green bond proceeds, charting a clear course for a more sustainable future for the island nation.

A Green Investment in Our Daily Commute

For Financial Year 2024, Singapore has earmarked a substantial S$2.8 billion in green bond proceeds to fuel the capital expenditure of two pivotal Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) projects: the Jurong Region Line (JRL) and the Cross Island Line (CRL). This initial allocation is just the beginning, with the remaining S$3.6 billion of proceeds expected to be fully channeled into these crucial rail lines by the end of FY2026. This demonstrates a deep-seated commitment to investing in public transport as a cornerstone of Singapore’s green strategy.

Tangible Environmental Benefits on the Horizon

This commitment isn’t just financial; it’s profoundly environmental. When fully operational, the JRL and CRL are projected to yield impressive carbon savings of between 100,000 and 120,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide-equivalent (CO₂e) annually. To put that into perspective, it’s like removing at least 22,000 internal combustion engine cars from Singapore’s roads each year. Imagine the cleaner air, the reduced traffic congestion, and the quieter urban soundscape – all direct benefits of this green investment.

Strategic Purpose: Driving the Singapore Green Plan 2030

Beyond the impressive numbers, these rail lines serve a critical strategic purpose. Their development is integral to the Singapore Green Plan 2030, which aims to expand the country’s rail network to a remarkable 360km. This expansion is a key enabler for Singapore’s broader climate goals: achieving net zero emissions by 2050 and significantly reducing land transport emissions from their 2016 peak by 2040. By making public transport an even more attractive and efficient option, the JRL and CRL will play a vital role in shifting commuters away from private vehicles.

Singapore’s Robust Green Finance Commitment

This latest allocation is part of a larger, robust commitment to green finance. Since 2022, the Singapore government has successfully raised a total of S$9.2 billion worth of proceeds from green Singapore Government Securities (SGS). These issuances, including both 30-year and 50-year green bonds, underscore the nation’s long-term vision and its attractive proposition for environmentally conscious investors.

Looking Ahead: A Greener, More Connected Future

The investment in the Jurong Region Line and Cross Island Line is more than just infrastructure development; it’s an investment in Singapore’s sustainable future. It’s about creating a more connected, efficient, and environmentally friendly city for all residents. As these lines take shape, they will not only enhance daily commutes but also solidify Singapore’s position as a living lab for urban sustainability.

It’s a powerful statement from the government: our economic growth can, and must, go hand-in-hand with our environmental aspirations. These green bonds are truly powering a greener Singapore, one rail link at a time.

Singapore’s green bond programme represents a significant commitment to sustainable infrastructure financing, with $2.8 billion allocated in FY2024 specifically for rail expansion. This analysis examines the strategic, environmental, and economic implications of this allocation.

Financial Architecture and Scale

Total Programme Scope

The Singapore government has raised $9.2 billion through green Singapore Government Securities (SGS) since the programme’s inception in 2022. This represents one of the most substantial sovereign green bond programmes in Asia, demonstrating Singapore’s leadership in sustainable finance despite its small geographic size.

Allocation Timeline and Strategy

FY2024 Allocation: $2.8 billion directed to JRL and CRL Cumulative Allocation: $5.6 billion total (including $2.8 billion from FY2023) Remaining Proceeds: $3.6 billion to be allocated by end of FY2026

This phased allocation approach suggests careful project management and alignment with construction timelines. The two-year deployment window for remaining funds indicates that Singapore is matching capital deployment with actual infrastructure development needs rather than rushing allocation for reporting purposes.

Issuance Structure

The government has employed a sophisticated maturity structure:

50-year bonds: Three tranches ($2.4B in Aug 2022, $2.8B in Sep 2023, $1.5B in Oct 2024)
30-year bonds: One tranche ($2.5B in Jun 2024)

The ultra-long duration of these instruments is particularly noteworthy. Fifty-year bonds are rare even in developed markets, and their use here reflects several strategic considerations:

Asset-liability matching: Rail infrastructure has operational lifespans exceeding 50 years, making long-dated financing appropriate
Cost efficiency: Locking in financing costs for extended periods provides budget certainty
Market signaling: Demonstrates investor confidence in Singapore’s long-term creditworthiness and climate commitments
Intergenerational equity: Aligns debt service with the period when future generations benefit from the infrastructure

Strategic Infrastructure Focus

Why Rail? The Logic Behind JRL and CRL Priority

Singapore’s decision to channel green bond proceeds exclusively into rail infrastructure (specifically JRL and CRL) rather than distributing across multiple green projects reveals several strategic priorities:

Urban Density and Land Constraints: Singapore’s 733 km² land area houses over 6 million people. With such constraints, surface transport is inefficient. Rail maximizes passenger throughput per square meter of land used.

Network Effects and Connectivity: The target of 360km of rail network under the Green Plan 2030 represents a 33% expansion from current coverage. JRL and CRL are not isolated projects but critical links that enhance the entire network’s utility. JRL connects western Singapore, while CRL will be Singapore’s longest fully underground line, connecting eastern and western regions via the central catchment area.

Modal Shift Imperative: Singapore’s land transport emissions peaked in 2016. Achieving the target of reducing these emissions from the 2016 peak by 2040 requires substantial modal shift from private vehicles to public transport. Rail is essential because buses, while lower-emission than cars, still compete for limited road space.

Environmental Impact Assessment

Carbon Savings Analysis

The projected carbon savings of 100,000 to 120,000 tonnes CO₂e annually warrant detailed examination:

Magnitude in Context:

Singapore’s total greenhouse gas emissions are approximately 52 million tonnes CO₂e annually (based on pre-2025 data)
The JRL and CRL would therefore reduce national emissions by approximately 0.19-0.23%
While seemingly modest in percentage terms, this represents significant impact for two infrastructure projects

The Vehicle Equivalency Metric: The comparison to removing 22,000 internal combustion engine vehicles is instructive but requires context:

Singapore has approximately 950,000 registered vehicles
This represents a 2.3% reduction in the vehicle fleet’s emissions
However, the induced demand effect means the actual reduction may differ: better public transport can suppress private vehicle purchases and usage beyond direct displacement

Calculation Methodology Considerations: The 100,000-120,000 tonne range (20% variance) suggests uncertainty in modeling assumptions around:

Ridership projections
Modal shift rates (what percentage of riders would have otherwise driven)
Vehicle fleet composition and efficiency improvements over time
Electricity grid carbon intensity changes

Indirect and Systemic Environmental Benefits

Beyond direct carbon savings, the rail expansion generates several second-order environmental benefits:

Land Use Efficiency: High-capacity rail enables transit-oriented development, reducing urban sprawl and preserving green spaces. This is critical for Singapore’s biodiversity conservation goals.

Air Quality Improvements: Reduced vehicular traffic means lower particulate matter and NOx emissions, improving public health outcomes. Health benefits from air quality improvements often exceed climate benefits in economic value.

Heat Island Mitigation: Less traffic reduces anthropogenic heat generation, helping manage urban heat island effects in a tropical climate.

Behavioral Lock-in: Infrastructure creates path dependencies. Rail built today shapes transportation behavior for 50+ years, making current investments crucial for long-term decarbonization.

Alignment with National Climate Strategy

Green Plan 2030 Integration

The rail expansion directly supports multiple Singapore Green Plan 2030 pillars:

Sustainable Living: Expanding rail access makes sustainable transport choices convenient and practical for more residents.

Energy Reset: By reducing transport energy intensity (passenger-km per unit energy), rail contributes to overall energy efficiency targets.

Green Economy: Demonstrates to markets that Singapore can execute large-scale green infrastructure, attracting sustainable finance and clean technology investments.

Net Zero 2050 Pathway

Singapore has committed to achieving net zero emissions by 2050. Transport decarbonization is particularly challenging because:

Aviation and shipping (critical for a maritime hub) are difficult to decarbonize
Electric vehicle adoption requires substantial grid decarbonization
Behavioral change is slower than technological change

Rail electrification, coupled with grid decarbonization, offers a proven pathway. Singapore’s grid is transitioning toward cleaner sources (solar, imported renewable energy, potentially hydrogen). As the grid decarbonizes, rail’s carbon intensity automatically improves without infrastructure changes.

Economic and Financial Implications

Cost-Benefit Considerations

While the report doesn’t provide total project costs, we can analyze the economic logic:

Capital Intensity: Rail infrastructure is capital-intensive but operationally efficient. The $5.6 billion allocated represents a substantial portion of project costs, with the government likely providing additional funding or guarantees.

Economic Multiplier Effects: Infrastructure investment generates employment, stimulates construction sector activity, and enhances productivity through improved connectivity. Transport economists typically estimate benefit-cost ratios for urban rail between 1.5 and 3.0 for successful projects.

Land Value Capture: Improved rail access increases property values along corridors. Singapore’s integrated land use planning means the government can capture some of this value appreciation through land sales, creating a partial self-financing mechanism.

Green Bond Market Development

Singapore’s programme serves broader financial ecosystem development:

Market Demonstration: By issuing large, liquid sovereign green bonds, Singapore provides benchmarks for regional issuers and demonstrates demand for long-dated green securities.

Standards Setting: Singapore adheres to international green bond principles and provides transparent impact reporting, setting standards for market quality.

Investor Base Development: The programme cultivates green finance expertise among institutional investors, supporting broader sustainable finance market development in Asia.

Governance and Transparency

Institutional Framework

The establishment of a green bond steering committee chaired by Minister Indranee Rajah (holding Finance and National Development portfolios) signals high-level political commitment. This governance structure ensures:

Coordination across ministries (Finance, Transport, Environment)
Strategic alignment with national priorities
Accountability for impact delivery

Reporting Quality

The annual Green Bond Report represents best practice in green finance transparency:

Allocation Disclosure: Clear reporting of proceeds allocation by project and fiscal year Impact Metrics: Quantified environmental outcomes with methodology transparency Forward Guidance: Expected allocation timelines provide market certainty

This transparency is critical for maintaining investor confidence and preventing “greenwashing” concerns that plague some green bond markets.

Challenges and Limitations

Implementation Risks

Construction Complexity: Both JRL and CRL involve complex underground construction in densely populated areas. Delays or cost overruns could affect allocation timelines and financial returns.

Ridership Uncertainty: Carbon savings projections depend on ridership assumptions. Economic downturns, pandemics (as recently experienced), or behavioral changes could affect actual impact.

Grid Decarbonization Dependence: Rail’s environmental benefits depend on electricity grid carbon intensity. Singapore’s grid transition progress directly affects achieved carbon savings.

Scale Limitations

The 0.2% reduction in national emissions, while significant for two projects, highlights the challenge Singapore faces. As a developed, service-oriented economy with significant aviation and maritime sectors, achieving net zero requires:

Comprehensive transport system transformation (not just rail)
Industrial decarbonization
Regional energy cooperation
Carbon capture or offset mechanisms

Rail expansion is necessary but insufficient alone.

Regional and Global Context

Southeast Asian Leadership

Singapore’s green bond programme is significant in the regional context:

Market Leadership: Singapore is establishing itself as a green finance hub, with this programme demonstrating sovereign commitment beyond rhetorical climate pledges.

Technology Transfer: The rail projects involve advanced clean transport technology that can inform regional infrastructure development.

Investment Standards: By adhering to rigorous green bond standards, Singapore raises the bar for climate finance quality in a region where greenwashing concerns are prevalent.

Comparative Analysis

Compared to other sovereign green bond programmes:

Scale: Singapore’s $9.2 billion is substantial for a city-state but modest compared to programmes in France (>€50 billion) or Germany (>€30 billion). However, relative to GDP and population, Singapore’s programme is competitive.

Focus: The concentrated allocation to specific rail projects contrasts with more diversified programmes elsewhere. This focus enables clearer impact attribution but creates concentration risk.

Maturity: Using 50-year bonds is more aggressive than most sovereigns, reflecting confidence in long-term creditworthiness and climate resilience.

Future Outlook and Recommendations

Programme Evolution

Looking ahead, several developments seem likely:

Continued Issuance: With $3.6 billion remaining to be allocated through FY2026, expect continued regular issuances to match funding needs.

Project Diversification: Once rail projects are fully funded, future tranches may support other green infrastructure (building efficiency, renewable energy integration, climate adaptation).

Market Innovation: Singapore may explore green sukuk (Islamic green bonds) or sustainability-linked bonds to diversify its sustainable finance toolkit.

Success Factors

For the programme to achieve full impact:

Timely Execution: Projects must be completed on schedule to deliver promised carbon savings within relevant timeframes for climate targets.

Integration: Rail expansion must be coordinated with land use planning, feeder bus services, and first/last mile solutions to maximize modal shift.

Continuous Improvement: Impact reporting should evolve to capture additional benefits (air quality, health, productivity) and refine carbon accounting methodologies.

Policy Complementarity: Supportive policies (parking pricing, congestion management, vehicle quota restrictions) must reinforce the infrastructure investment.

Conclusion

Singapore’s green bond allocation to JRL and CRL represents a sophisticated approach to sustainable infrastructure financing. The programme demonstrates several strengths:

Strategic focus: Concentrated investment in high-impact infrastructure rather than dispersed funding
Financial innovation: Ultra-long-dated instruments matching asset lifespans
Transparency: Rigorous impact reporting and governance
Integration: Clear links to national climate strategy and sustainable development goals

However, the programme also faces inherent limitations. The projected carbon savings, while significant, represent a small fraction of national emissions. Achieving net zero by 2050 will require this rail investment plus comprehensive decarbonization across all sectors.

Ultimately, the green bond programme’s success should be measured not just by tonnes of CO₂e avoided, but by its contribution to a systemic transformation of Singapore’s urban mobility. By making sustainable transport the convenient choice for millions of daily journeys, the JRL and CRL can catalyze behavioral changes that reverberate through the economy for decades.

The programme also serves a demonstration function beyond Singapore’s borders. In a region rapidly urbanizing and facing severe climate risks, Singapore’s model of using sovereign green bonds to finance resilient, low-carbon infrastructure offers a template worth studying and adapting. For a global financial center positioning itself as a sustainable finance hub, this kind of leadership through example is as valuable as the direct environmental benefits.

The Line That Changed Everything

Part One: The Ministers’ Table, 2022

The conference room on the fifteenth floor overlooked Marina Bay, where the evening sun painted the water gold. Minister Indranee Rajah studied the faces around the table—Finance, Transport, Environment, Sustainability—each department head holding pieces of the same puzzle.

“Fifty years,” the Finance representative said, tapping his tablet. “We’re talking about bonds that won’t mature until 2072. My grandchildren will be paying these off.”

“And using the rail lines we build with them,” Indranee replied. “That’s the point.”

She pulled up the projection on the main screen. Two lines threaded across the island map in bold colors—the Jurong Region Line cutting through the west, the Cross Island Line arcing across the center. Together, they would knit neighborhoods into the fabric of the city in ways that had never been possible before.

“The numbers don’t lie,” the Environment director said. “But they don’t tell the whole story either. One hundred thousand tonnes of carbon savings annually—that’s not going to solve climate change.”

“No,” Indranee agreed. “But it’s going to change how half a million people move through their lives every single day. And that changes everything else.”

She thought of her own morning commute, the crush of bodies on the MRT platform, the calculations everyone made—leave earlier, drive instead, work from home. Infrastructure wasn’t just about moving people. It was about giving them back time, giving them choices.

“We’re not just building rail lines,” she continued. “We’re making a statement to the market. When Singapore issues a fifty-year green bond, when we put nine billion dollars behind urban rail, we’re telling investors that this is what sustainable infrastructure looks like. We’re creating the template.”

The Transport head leaned forward. “And Jakarta is watching. Manila is watching. Bangkok is watching. They’re all facing the same crisis—too many cars, too much carbon, cities choking on their own growth.”

“Exactly.” Indranee stood, walking to the window. Below, traffic streamed along the expressway, a river of red taillights. “We can’t solve their problems. But we can show them one way forward.”

The vote was unanimous.

Part Two: The Site Engineer, 2024

Siti wiped the sweat from her forehead, leaving a smear of red laterite across her safety helmet. Twenty meters underground, the tunnel boring machine—affectionately called “Semangat” by the crew—ground through ancient rock, carving the path for the Cross Island Line.

“How much today?” her assistant called over the machinery noise.

“Four meters,” Siti shouted back. “On schedule.”

On schedule. Those two words carried weight. The green bond allocations came with timelines, with reporting requirements, with international investors watching to ensure their money was building something real. Not just financial returns, but carbon returns, environmental returns, social returns.

Every meter of tunnel was a promise kept.

During the lunch break, Siti sat with her crew in the site canteen. Most were in their twenties and thirties, local engineers mixed with specialists from around the region. They’d come to work on something that mattered.

“My cousin in Jakarta says they’re talking about doing something similar,” one of the Malaysian engineers said. “Using green financing for their transport projects.”

“They should,” Siti replied. “We’re proving it works. Not just the engineering—the financing model too.”

She thought about the reports she filed monthly—progress, materials, environmental impact assessments. Every nail and bolt tracked, every cubic meter of concrete accounted for. The transparency was exhausting, but it was also the point. You couldn’t fake this kind of documentation.

“You know what I like about this project?” a younger engineer said. “My nephew is three years old. When he’s my age, he’ll take this line to work. He won’t even remember when it wasn’t here.”

Siti smiled. “That’s the idea. Infrastructure should be invisible—until you imagine life without it.”

Part Three: The Family, 2026

Maya checked the time on her phone: 7:42 AM. The Jurong Region Line station was a three-minute walk from her flat, and the train would have her at her office in Raffles Place by 8:15. She could sleep an extra twenty minutes now, time she’d once spent sitting in traffic.

“Mom, can we take the new train?” her daughter Aisha asked, tugging at her sleeve.

“We take it every day, sayang.”

“I know, but can we ride it all the way to the end and back? Mrs. Chen at school said her family did it last weekend. She said there are stations that look like gardens.”

Maya laughed. “Maybe this weekend. If you finish your homework.”

On the platform, the morning crowd gathered—office workers, students, elderly residents heading to market. Maya noticed fewer cars at the parking lot near her building. The maths was simple: why pay for parking, fuel, and vehicle maintenance when the train was faster, cheaper, and ran every three minutes?

Her colleague Raj boarded at the next station. “Did you see the news?” he asked, showing her his phone. “Vietnam just announced a green bond program for their metro expansion. They literally cited Singapore’s model in the press conference.”

“Really?”

“Philippines too. They’re doing a study mission next month—looking at how we structured the financing, how we’re measuring impact.”

Maya glanced at Aisha, who was pressed against the window, watching the tunnel walls blur past. Her daughter wouldn’t remember the traffic jams, wouldn’t remember her parents calculating whether a job was worth the commute time. She would grow up assuming that cities worked this way—efficient, connected, clean.

That was the real carbon saving, Maya thought. Not just the tonnes measured annually, but the expectations embedded in the next generation. When you made sustainable choices convenient, they stopped being choices. They became how things were done.

Part Four: The Investor, 2027

In a glass tower in Geneva, Christine reviewed her portfolio of sovereign green bonds. The Singapore 50-year was one of her favorites—not for the yield, which was modest, but for what it represented.

She’d been in the investor call when Singapore first announced the program in 2022. The skepticism had been palpable. Fifty-year bonds for rail projects in a city-state smaller than most metropolitan areas? Impact reports tracking every tonne of carbon?

“Too transparent,” one colleague had muttered. “Makes them vulnerable if the numbers don’t work out.”

But that transparency was exactly what the market needed. Christine pulled up the latest annual report—allocation details, construction progress, ridership projections, actual carbon savings versus projections. The variance was minimal. The Singaporeans were delivering.

Her phone buzzed with a meeting reminder—video conference with the Indonesian sovereign wealth fund. They wanted advice on structuring green bonds for Jakarta’s transport expansion.

“Use Singapore as your benchmark,” she would tell them. “Not because their model is perfect—every city is different. But because they’ve shown that sustainable infrastructure financing can work at scale. They’ve created the data, the methodologies, the reporting standards.”

She looked at her screen, where a notification showed the Cross Island Line had begun partial operations. First-day ridership exceeded projections by 15%.

The market would notice. Institutional investors who’d been cautious about green bonds would see the numbers and recalibrate their assumptions. Climate funds would have proof points for their boards. Other sovereigns would have a template to adapt.

That was how systemic change happened—not through grand declarations, but through demonstrated proof. Make it work in one place, document it thoroughly, and others would follow.

Part Five: The Return, 2040

Minister Indranee stood at the same window where she’d stood eighteen years earlier, though her title had changed and her hair had grayed. The view was familiar—Marina Bay, the evening sun—but the city below had transformed.

The final allocations from the 2022 green bond program had been deployed in 2026, right on schedule. The Jurong Region Line and Cross Island Line were now integral parts of a 360-kilometer rail network, moving three million passengers daily.

The carbon savings had slightly exceeded original projections: 115,000 tonnes annually, equivalent to removing 25,000 cars from the roads. But that number, she knew, vastly understated the impact.

Land transport emissions had declined 30% from their 2016 peak—five years ahead of the 2040 target. Property values along the rail corridors had risen, enabling the government to fund additional infrastructure through land sales. Air quality had improved measurably. Productivity had increased as commute times shortened.

But the ripples extended far beyond Singapore.

The green bond model had been adapted by twelve countries in Southeast Asia alone. Jakarta, Manila, Bangkok, Ho Chi Minh City—all had used Singapore’s framework as their starting point, modified for their contexts. The Asian Development Bank had codified the methodology into their green infrastructure guidelines.

A generation of engineers, urban planners, and financial analysts had been trained on the projects. They now worked throughout the region, carrying knowledge of what worked and what didn’t.

Her grandson, now sixteen, had never known a Singapore without comprehensive rail coverage. When she asked him once if he wanted to get a driving license when he turned eighteen, he’d looked confused.

“Why would I need to drive, Nana? The train goes everywhere.”

That was the transformation that couldn’t be captured in carbon accounting. An entire generation that considered sustainable transport not as sacrifice but as normal. Cities where walking to the station was built into neighborhood design. An investment community that understood green bonds as legitimate instruments, not marketing gimmicks.

She turned from the window as her phone chimed—a message from a colleague in the African Development Bank. They were exploring green bonds for bus rapid transit in Nairobi and Lagos. Could she recommend consultants who understood the Singapore model?

She smiled and began typing her response.

The trains would run for fifty years, a century, longer. Long after the bonds matured, long after the carbon savings of 2040 seemed quaint in the context of 2072’s challenges. But the precedent would endure.

Infrastructure was about more than concrete and steel. It was about demonstrating what was possible, creating templates that others could adapt, making the future seem achievable rather than frightening.

Twenty meters underground, new tunnel boring machines were already at work, extending the network further. The work never stopped. But it had changed from questioning whether it could be done to refining how to do it better.

That, Indranee thought, was what leadership looked like. Not the grand gesture, but the patient work of building something real, documenting it honestly, and trusting that others would see the value and build on it.

The sun set over Marina Bay. Tomorrow, millions of people would wake up, check their phones for train times, and begin their days. Most would never think about the green bonds that made it possible, the years of tunneling, the carbon calculations, the international precedents.

That invisibility was success.

Epilogue: The Architect in Ho Chi Minh City, 2045

Linh spread the plans across her desk—the proposed Green Line extension, sixty kilometers through the city’s northern districts. The financing model was already approved: a 40-year green bond issuance, structured using the Singapore framework as modified by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations infrastructure standards.

On her wall hung a photo from her graduate school days—an internship on Singapore’s Cross Island Line construction in 2028. She’d been part of the documentation team, learning how to track environmental impact, how to structure transparent reporting, how to make infrastructure financing accountable.

Now she was leading her own project.

The young engineer in her office looked nervous. “The carbon projections—what if we don’t meet them?”

Linh smiled. “Then we document why, we learn from it, and we adjust future projections. That’s what the Singaporeans taught us. It’s not about being perfect. It’s about being honest about what works.”

She thought of her morning commute, smooth and efficient, on trains financed by Vietnam’s second green bond issuance. She thought of her daughter, who was studying sustainable urban planning and spoke casually about modal shift and carbon budgets as if they were basic vocabulary.

The lines on her desk would take seven years to build. By then, her daughter would be finishing university. Maybe working on the next generation of projects, in Vietnam or elsewhere in the region.

The work spread like tree roots—invisible, essential, connecting everything.

Outside her window, Ho Chi Minh City hummed with the evening rush. Trains, buses, bikes, pedestrians—a carefully orchestrated dance of urban mobility. Not perfect. Not complete. But moving in the right direction.

One line at a time.

Author’s note: This story is a work of fiction inspired by actual events. While Singapore’s green bond program and rail projects are real, the characters and specific scenarios are imagined representations of the broader transformation such infrastructure enables.

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