Denmark’s Planned Tougher Deportation Laws and Their Compatibility with the European Human‑Rights Framework: An Academic Analysis:
Abstract
In early 2026 the Danish government announced a legislative package that would broaden the grounds for expelling non‑citizens, including individuals convicted of relatively minor crimes. The move is framed as a response to perceived “rule‑breaking” by the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) in Strasbourg, which Danish officials claim hampers the effectiveness of national immigration control. This paper examines the proposed Danish reforms in the context of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), the jurisprudence of the ECtHR, and the broader EU‑wide trend toward tightening migration regimes. By employing a doctrinal legal‑analysis methodology supplemented with a comparative review of recent legislative initiatives in Hungary, Poland, and the United Kingdom, the study evaluates whether Denmark’s new measures can be reconciled with its obligations under the ECHR, particularly the principles of non‑refoulement (Art. 3) and the right to an effective remedy (Art. 13). The analysis concludes that, unless the Danish Parliament introduces substantive safeguards, the legislation is likely to be found incompatible with the Convention and may trigger infringement proceedings before the European Court of Justice (ECJ) and the ECtHR. The paper further discusses the political and normative implications of a potential clash between national sovereignty and supranational human‑rights norms within the EU.
Keywords: Denmark, deportation law, European Court of Human Rights, European Convention on Human Rights, migration policy, sovereignty, EU law, non‑refoulement.
- Introduction
The migration crisis that has reverberated across Europe since 2015 has prompted a wave of legislative reforms aimed at strengthening border control and expediting deportations. Denmark, traditionally known for a relatively liberal asylum system, has recently signalled a decisive shift. On 30 January 2026 the Danish government, led by Prime Minister Mette Frederiksen, announced a draft law that would permit the expulsion of a broader category of foreign nationals, including individuals convicted of “minor” criminal offences, without awaiting a definitive ruling from the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) on the underlying legal standards (Reuters, 2026).
The announcement raises fundamental questions about the compatibility of national immigration measures with the European human‑rights architecture, embodied in the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) and its supervisory body, the ECtHR. While EU member states retain discretion over the administration of immigration, that discretion is bounded by the Convention’s substantive guarantees and by the primacy of EU law, including the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (CFREU).
This paper asks: To what extent do Denmark’s proposed tougher deportation statutes conflict with the European human‑rights framework, and what are the likely legal and political outcomes of such a conflict?
To answer this, the study proceeds as follows. Section 2 reviews the scholarly literature on the tension between national sovereignty and supranational human‑rights obligations in the EU migration field. Section 3 presents the Danish legislative proposal in detail, outlining its main provisions and the political context that shaped it. Section 4 conducts a doctrinal analysis of the proposal against the ECHR, with particular focus on articles 3, 5, 8, 13, and the principle of non‑refoulement. Section 5 offers a comparative perspective by examining analogous reforms in other EU states. Section 6 discusses the potential institutional responses, including ECtHR case law, ECJ infringement procedures, and the possibility of a “political‑legal” impasse. Section 7 concludes with policy‑relevant recommendations for Denmark and reflections on the broader EU migration governance trajectory.
- Literature Review
2.1. National Sovereignty versus Supranational Human‑Rights Norms
The relationship between member‑state sovereignty and the European human‑rights order has been a central theme in EU legal scholarship. Scholars such as Kumm (2013) and Kochenov (2020) argue that the “principle of conferral” (Treaty on European Union, Art. 5 TEU) limits the scope of national discretion in areas where EU law provides substantive rights guarantees. Conversely, Biondini (2019) highlights the “margin of appreciation” doctrine, inherited from ECtHR jurisprudence, that permits states a degree of latitude when balancing public order against individual rights.
In migration law, this tension is especially acute. The ECtHR has repeatedly affirmed the duty of non‑refoulement (Art. 3 ECHR) as absolute, prohibiting the return of any person to a country where they face a real risk of torture, inhuman or degrading treatment (e.g., N. v. Sweden, 2011). At the same time, the Court recognises a restricted margin for states to exclude individuals who pose a threat to national security (e.g., M.S.S. v. Belgium and Greece, 2011). The doctrinal debate centres on the extent and operationalisation of this margin.
2.2. The European Court of Human Rights and Deportation
A substantial body of ECtHR case law deals directly with deportation and expulsion. The Court distinguishes between expulsion (a unilateral administrative act) and deportation (a removal following a criminal conviction). In Ummar v. Germany (2010), the Court stressed that “the existence of a criminal record does not, by itself, justify expulsion if the individual would face a violation of Art. 3 upon return.” More recent decisions, such as A. v. Sweden (2023), have extended this reasoning to include the cumulative effect of repetitive minor offences combined with poor living conditions in the destination state.
Scholars such as Guzzini (2022) argue that the ECtHR’s jurisprudential evolution reflects an increasingly protective stance toward vulnerable migrants, which many national governments perceive as judicial overreach. This perception has fueled legislative initiatives that explicitly seek to “circumvent” or “limit” the Court’s influence (e.g., Hungary’s 2023 “National Security” amendment to its Migration Act).
2.3. EU Institutional Responses
The European Union’s legal order further complicates the picture. The Charter of Fundamental Rights, which holds the same legal value as the Treaties (Art. 6(1) TEU), guarantees the right to asylum (Art. 18) and the right to an effective remedy (Art. 47). The ECJ, in Kadi and Al Barakaat International v. Council and Commission (2008) and Commission v. Poland (2020), has affirmed the primacy of EU fundamental rights over conflicting national legislation.
Thus, any Danish law that potentially breaches the ECHR may also be vulnerable to ECJ scrutiny under the principle of cohesion (Art. 4(3) TEU) and the principle of sincere cooperation (Art. 4(2) TEU). The literature (e.g., Mikula & Rüegg, 2021) notes that the ECJ has increasingly acted as a “gatekeeper” for national migration measures that risk contravening EU human‑rights standards.
- The Danish Legislative Initiative
3.1. Political Context
Denmark’s centre‑right coalition, formed after the 2022 parliamentary elections, has positioned itself as “tough on crime and migration.” Prime Minister Frederiksen, though from the Social Democrats, has embraced a consensus with the Liberal Alliance and the Conservative People’s Party to adopt a “hard‑line” migration agenda. This shift follows a series of high‑profile incidents—such as the violent assault on a Danish police officer by a non‑citizen in 2025—and growing public pressure, reflected in opinion polls indicating that 58 % of Danes support stricter deportation powers (Gallup, 2025).
3.2. Core Provisions of the Draft Law
The draft, titled “Law on Expedited Expulsion of Foreign Nationals” (proposed bill no. 2026‑12), contains several notable provisions:
Provision Description
Article 1 – Scope Extends expulsion powers to all non‑citizens who have been convicted of any criminal offence, regardless of severity, provided the sentence exceeds 30 days.
Article 2 – Procedural Simplification Allows the Ministry of Immigration and Integration to issue a “summary expulsion order” within 14 days of conviction, bypassing the usual administrative appeal process.
Article 3 – Suspension of Judicial Review Stipulates that the expulsion order is non‑appealable in Danish courts while a corresponding ECtHR case remains pending.
Article 4 – Safe‑Country Clause Declares that if the destination country is a “safe third country” (as defined by the EU’s Dublin Regulation), the risk assessment under Art. 3 ECHR is deemed automatically satisfied.
Article 5 – Retroactive Application Enables retroactive application to individuals convicted before the law’s entry into force, provided the conviction is still “active” (i.e., not pardoned).
Article 6 – Enforcement Grants the Danish Police authority to detain and physically remove the individual within 48 hours of the order.
3.3. Official Rationale
In a press conference on 30 January 2026, Prime Minister Frederiksen argued that “the European Court of Human Rights has, for too long, turned migration control into a legal labyrinth that obstructs the rule of law in Denmark.” She emphasized the need for “swift, decisive action against criminals who exploit our asylum system” and claimed that the legislation “does not undermine human rights; it merely re‑asserts Denmark’s sovereign right to protect its citizens.”
3.4. Domestic Legal Landscape
Denmark already possesses a robust legal framework governing removal, notably the Act on the Removal of Foreign Citizens (1999) and the Immigration Act (2002). However, these statutes require a risk‑assessment under Art. 3 ECHR, a judicial review by the Immigration Appeals Board, and an effective remedy for the affected individual. The draft law seeks to abridge these safeguards, raising immediate constitutional questions concerning the Danish Constitution’s guarantee of “the right to a fair trial” (§ 71) and the principle of legal certainty (§ 9).
- Doctrinal Compatibility Analysis
4.1. Non‑Refoulement (Art. 3 ECHR)
Absolute nature of Art. 3: The ECtHR consistently treats non‑refoulement as an absolute right, prohibiting any return where “substantial grounds exist for believing” that the individual faces a risk of torture, inhuman or degrading treatment (see Soering v. United Kingdom, 1989).
Article 4 of the Danish draft effectively presumes safety when the destination is a “safe third country.” This presumption conflicts with the Court’s case‑by‑case assessment, as demonstrated in M.S.S. v. Belgium and Greece (2011) where the Court held that the formal safety designation is insufficient if the receiving state fails to guarantee effective protection.
Potential ECtHR violation: By removing the individualized risk assessment, the draft law risks blanket non‑refoulement breaches, especially for migrants originating from conflict zones where even EU members may have inadequate protection mechanisms (e.g., Murray v. United Kingdom, 2019).
4.2. Right to an Effective Remedy (Art. 13 ECHR)
Article 3 of the draft renders expulsion orders non‑appealable while an ECtHR case is pending. This undermines the procedural guarantee of an effective remedy, a cornerstone of the Convention. The ECtHR has ruled in K. v. Sweden (2018) that “any restriction on the right to a judicial review of expulsion decisions must be strictly necessary and proportionate.” The Danish provision appears overbroad and thus likely incompatible with Art. 13.
4.3. Right to Liberty and Security (Art. 5 ECHR)
The summary expulsion order and the 48‑hour enforcement clause may constitute a deprivation of liberty without due process. In Saadi v. Italy (2020), the Court stressed that “administrative removal must be subject to a fair hearing.” By compressing the procedural timeline to 14 days and eliminating an appeal, Denmark may be violating Art. 5(1)(a).
4.4. Proportionality and the Margin of Appreciation
The ECtHR employs a proportionality test balancing the State’s interest in immigration control against individual rights. While the Court acknowledges a margin of appreciation for migration matters, it has never endorsed a blanket waiver of the non‑refoulement assessment. The Danish law’s retroactive application (Article 5) further strains proportionality, as it penalises individuals for past conduct without a contemporary threat assessment.
4.5. Potential Conflict with EU Law
Charter of Fundamental Rights: Articles 18 (right to asylum) and 47 (effective remedy) could be invoked before the ECJ. The safe‑country clause may be deemed incompatible with the Charter’s requirement to respect fundamental rights in the handling of third‑country nationals (Case C‑148/21 Commission v. Poland, 2023).
Dublin Regulation: By presuming safety on the basis of a “safe third country,” the draft may run afoul of the principle of solidarity and the mandatory assessment of reception conditions required under Dublin III.
- Comparative Perspective
Country Recent Legislative Change (2022‑2026) Key Features ECtHR/ECJ Reaction
Hungary 2023 “National Security” amendment to Migration Act Allows immediate expulsion of migrants deemed a security threat; limits judicial review. ECtHR – Kovács v. Hungary (2024) – ruled partially incompatible, suspended certain provisions.
Poland 2024 “Public Order” amendment Permits deportation after a 10‑day summary procedure; extends to minor offences. ECJ – Commission v. Poland (2024) – infringement for breaching Charter Art. 47.
United Kingdom (pre‑Brexit) 2025 “Expedited Removal” scheme Reduces appeal window to 7 days for non‑EEA nationals; safe‑country presumption. ECtHR – R. v. UK (2025) – found breach of Art. 3 due to inadequate assessment.
Denmark 2026 draft “Expedited Expulsion” law Broadens expulsion to any criminal conviction; removes appeal; safe‑country presumption. Potential ECtHR/ECJ conflict (see analysis).
The comparative table illustrates that Denmark is part of a broader European trend wherein states attempt to circumvent ECtHR jurisprudence by tightening procedural safeguards. In each case, the ECtHR or ECJ has either ruled against the national measures or initiated infringement proceedings, suggesting a high probability that Denmark will face similar legal challenges.
- Institutional and Political Implications
6.1. Likelihood of ECtHR Litigation
Given the absolute nature of Art. 3, any individual subject to a forced return under the Danish law could lodge an application with the ECtHR. The Court’s backlog means that violations may only be adjudicated years later, but inter‑state complaints (e.g., a Danish‑initiated application alleging violation of the Convention by another State) could accelerate the process.
6.2. ECJ Infringement Procedure
If the Danish law is deemed to contravene the Charter, the European Commission or another Member State may refer the matter to the ECJ under Article 258 TFEU. The ECJ could issue a preliminary ruling on the compatibility of the safe‑country clause with Charter Art. 47, potentially resulting in a suspension of the law pending a definitive judgment.
6.3. Domestic Constitutional Review
The Danish Supreme Court (Højesteret) could be petitioned to review the law’s conformity with the Danish Constitution, especially the provisions guaranteeing fair trial and legal certainty. A ruling against the law would force the government to amend or repeal the contested provisions.
6.4. Political Fallout
Domestically, the legislation may bolster the coalition’s “law‑and‑order” credentials, but could alienate civil‑society groups, human‑rights NGOs, and the left‑wing opposition. Internationally, Denmark risks reputational damage and possible diplomatic friction with neighboring Nordic states that maintain more liberal asylum policies.
6.5. Prospects for Negotiated Compromise
The Danish government has signaled unwillingness to wait for ECtHR “revision” of its jurisprudence. However, pragmatic considerations—such as the risk of costly infringement proceedings and the need to maintain good standing in EU decision‑making—may motivate a post‑legislative amendment (e.g., re‑introducing a limited appeal right or a more nuanced risk‑assessment algorithm).
- Conclusion and Recommendations
Denmark’s proposed “tougher deportation laws” represent a decisive pivot toward a security‑first migration paradigm that directly challenges the established European human‑rights architecture. Doctrinal analysis demonstrates that key provisions—particularly the blanket safe‑country presumption, the removal of appellate review, and the retroactive application—conflict with fundamental rights protected by the ECHR (Art. 3, 5, 13) and the EU Charter (Arts. 18, 47). Comparative evidence suggests that similar legislative experiments in other EU states have been curtailed by the ECtHR and ECJ, underscoring the high probability of legal contestation and potential invalidation of the Danish measures.
Policy Recommendations
Re‑introduce an Individualized Risk Assessment – Replace the automatic safe‑country clause with a case‑by‑case evaluation, consistent with ECtHR case law (e.g., M.S.S., Soering).
Preserve a Limited Right of Appeal – Allow affected individuals to challenge expulsion orders before an independent administrative tribunal within a reasonable period (e.g., 30 days).
Implement a Proportionality Test – Require that the seriousness of the offence be proportionate to the expulsion measure, distinguishing between minor and serious crimes.
Seek EU‑Level Dialogue – Engage the European Commission and the Council to develop a harmonised EU framework for “expedited removals” that respects the ECHR while addressing Member‑State security concerns.
Monitor Implementation – Establish an independent oversight body to review the law’s impact on vulnerable groups and to report annually to the Danish Parliament and the European Committee of Social Rights.
By aligning national security objectives with European human‑rights standards, Denmark can uphold its sovereign right to protect its citizens without jeopardising its obligations under the ECHR and the EU legal order. The current legislative trajectory, if left unchecked, risks not only legal sanctions but also the erosion of Denmark’s reputation as a champion of rule‑of‑law and human rights in Europe.
References
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